The causes of deviance—behavior that violates social norms—are complex and generally explored through three main perspectives: sociological, psychological, and biological. These factors often interact rather than acting in isolation.
1. Sociological Causes (Social Environment)
Sociological theories focus on the influence of the social structure, institutions, and relationships on individual behavior.
- Strain Theory (Merton): Deviance arises when there’s a disconnect (strain) between cultural goals (like wealth) and the legitimate means (like education and hard work) to achieve them. The inability to achieve goals through approved means can lead to deviant adaptations, such as innovation (using illegal means to achieve the goal).
- Social Disorganization Theory: Crime and deviance are more likely in communities with weak social ties and a lack of social control. Factors like poverty, high residential mobility, and family disruption weaken institutions (family, school, police) that typically socialize and control individuals.
- Conflict Theory: This perspective views deviance as a result of social, economic, and power inequality. The norms and laws of society often reflect the interests of the dominant groups, and what is labeled “deviant” disproportionately affects the less powerful. Deviance can sometimes be seen as a way for marginalized groups to challenge the existing social order.
- Differential Association Theory (Sutherland): Deviance is learned through interaction with others, especially within intimate personal groups. An individual becomes deviant when they associate more with people who hold favorable attitudes toward deviance than with those who hold conforming views.
- Labeling Theory: Deviance is not inherent in the act itself but in the societal reaction to the act. When an individual is labeled as deviant by society, they may internalize that identity, leading to further (secondary) deviance.
- Control Theory (Hirschi): Deviance occurs when an individual’s social bonds to society are weak or broken. These bonds include attachment (to family/friends), commitment (to conventional activities like school/work), involvement, and belief (in the value of the norms).
2. Psychological Causes (Individual Mind and Personality)
Psychological theories link deviance to an individual’s personality, faulty mental processes, or past trauma.
- Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud): Deviance may be linked to an improperly socialized individual who has not developed adequate internal controls (a strong enough superego) to curb their natural, unconscious, antisocial impulses (id).
- Cognitive Development Theory (Kohlberg): Deviant behavior can result from an individual’s inability to progress through the normal stages of moral reasoning, leaving them focused on avoiding punishment rather than valuing laws and the rights of others.
- Learning Theory: Deviance is learned through rewards and consequences (operant conditioning) or by observing others (social learning). If a person sees deviant behavior being rewarded or unpunished, they are more likely to engage in it.
- Mental Health Issues/Trauma: Conditions like antisocial personality disorder, conduct disorder, or the psychological impact of trauma (e.g., childhood abuse, PTSD) can significantly contribute to the propensity for deviant and criminal behavior.
3. Biological Causes (Genetics and Physiology)
Biological theories, while historically controversial (e.g., early focus on specific physical traits), now focus on the complex interplay of genetics and environment.
- Genetics: Research explores how certain genetic predispositions may, in combination with environmental factors, increase the likelihood of behaviors associated with deviance. However, there is no “crime gene.”
- Neurophysiological Factors: Studies suggest that differences in brain structure and function (particularly in areas related to impulse control, emotion regulation, and decision-making, such as the prefrontal cortex) may be associated with antisocial behavior.
- Psychophysiology: Variations in physiological arousal (like a low resting heart rate) are sometimes linked to a reduced fear response, potentially making an individual less deterred by the risk of engaging in deviant acts.
